Sir Ken Robinson
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iG9CE55wbtY&feature=youtu.be
A professora: O que
você está desenhando?
A garota disse: Estou
fazendo um desenho de
Deus.
A professora disse: Mas
ninguém sabe como é
Deus.
A menina disse: Eles
vão, em um minuto.
As crianças
vão se arriscar.
Se eles não sabem,
eles tentarão.
Eles (crianças)
não têm medo de estar errados.
Estar errado não
é necessariamente a mesma
coisa que ser criativo.
O que sabemos é
que, se você não estiver
preparado para errar, nunca encontrará nada original, se
não estiver preparado
para estar errado.
Eles ficam com medo de
estar errados.
E agora estamos
administrando sistemas
nacionais de educação em que erros são a pior
coisa que você pode cometer.
Se você pensar bem,
todo o sistema de educação
pública em todo o mundo é um processo demorado de entrada
na universidade.
E a consequência
é que muitas pessoas
altamente talentosas, brilhantes e criativas pensam que não
são, porque cantam
bom na escola não
era valorizado ou era
realmente estigmatizado.
"Não crescemos em
criatividade, nós
crescemos fora dela."
"We don't grow into creativity, we
grow out of it."
Sir Ken Robinson
Suddenly. degrees aren't worth
anything.
it's a process of academic
inflation.
We need to radically rethink our
view of
intelligence.
We know three things about
intelligence:
it is diverse; it is dynamic; it is distinct.
Creativity which I define as the
process
of having original ideas that have value.
Do schools kill creativity? | Sir
Ken
Robinson
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iG9CE55wbtY&feature=youtu.be
But if you ask about their
education, they
pin you to the wall,
because it's one of those things
that goes
deep with people, am i right?
Like religion and money and other
things.
We have a huge vested interest in
it,
partly because it's education that's meant
to take us into this future that we
can't
grasp.
If you think of it, children
starting
school this year will be retiring in 2020+60.
Nobody has a clue, despite all the
expertise that's been on parade ...
what the world will look like in
five
year's time. And yet, we're meant to be educating them for it.
So the unpredictability, I think,
is
extraordinary.
Children have extraordinary
capacities for
innovation.
All kids have tremendous talents,
and we
squander them, pretty ruthlessly.
creativity is as important in
education as
literacy, and we should treat it with the same status.
Great story: I little girl who was in a drawing lesson.
The teacher said this girl hardly
ever
paid attention, and in this drawing lesson, she did.
The teacher was fascinated. She
went over
to her and she said:
The teacher: What are you drawing?
The girl said: I'm drawing the
picture of
God.
The teacher said: But nobody knows
what
God looks like.
The girl said: They will in a
minute.
Kids will take a chance. If they
don't
know, they'll have a go. They (kids) are not frightened of being wrong.
Being wrong is not necessarily the
same
thing as being creative.
What we do know is, if you're not
prepared
to be wrong, you'll never come up with anything original if you're not
prepared
to be wrong.
They become frightened of being
wrong.
And we're now running national
education
systems where mistakes are the worst thing you can make.
12:03
If you think of it, the whole system of
public education around the worlds is a protracted process of
university
entrance.
And the consequence is that many
highly
talented, brilliant, creative people think they're not, because the
sing they
were good at school wasn't valued or was actually stigmatized.
"We don't grow into creativity; we
grow out of it."
Damn, Sir Ken Robinson has sadly
passed
away, what an incredible man.
"We don't grow into creativity, we
grow out of it."
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZT3QpUfEg1Q
54:42 / 1:04:52
Sir Ken Robinson: "Reimagine
Learning
that Can Change the World" –
Reimagine Education
Tarefa: tirar a porca do
tubo.
Estamos aprendendo as
coisas certas na escola?
Participe da
discussão sobre nossa educação.
Tudo que as pessoas
precisavam para resolver o
problema estava na sala.
Todos os recursos que
precisavam estavam lá.
As pessoas que o
resolveram viram os recursos
que estavam disponíveis e fizerem uso deles.
As pessoas que não
resolveram o problema não
incluíram os recursos disponibilizados no enquadramento do
problema e/ou da
solução.
Muitas das pessoas viram
a garrafa de água e a
taça de fruta e, porventura,
acharam simpático,
mas não os envolveram na
resolução do problema, eventualmente por não
quererem perder tempo,
centraram-se de imediato na tarefa de resolver o problema.
As pessoas que o
resolveram fizeram uso de
tudo o que lhes foi disponibilizado.
Opdracht: haal het nootje uit de
koker.
Leren we wel de juiste dingen op
school?
Discussieer mee over ons onderwijs.
Independentemente da
classificação que o aluno
obtenha na prova escrita, poderá haver lugar à
realização de uma confirmação
oral (prova oral) individual dos conhecimentos demonstrados no teste ou
exame
e/ou para defesa de classificação ou para
aferição da nota final; nas provas
orais deverão contar com a participação, sempre
que possível, de pelo menos
dois docentes da UC.
"A principal meta da
educação é criar
homens que sejam capazes de fazer coisas novas, não simplesmente
repetir o que
outras gerações já fizeram. Homens que sejam
criadores, inventores,
descobridores. A segunda meta da educação é formar
mentes que estejam em
condições de criticar, verificar e não aceitar
tudo que a elas se propõe."
Jean Piaget
Pensar como um
físico
Thinking like a physicist
Planck's intensive quest for an
understanding of the black-body radiation spectrum followed a pattern
that you
have seen before in your study of physics. Planck’s first step was a
trail-and-error one, and this initial goal was limited to finding a
mathematical function that would fit the experimental results. His
search was
motivated in large part by the steady improvement in the precision of
the
available measurements – a precision that gave good hope that only one
plausible function would fit the date well.
Planck did not embark on even this
relatively modest effort without background provided by others. He knew
that
the desired function had to be consistent with Wien’s formula at short
wavelengths and with the Rayleigh-Jeans function (equation 40.5) at
long
wavelength (because those functions did fit the experimental
results in
those ranges).
Planck could not be content merely
with
having found the function given by equation 40.7. He had to achieve an
understanding of why this function fit the data. In searching
for this
understanding, he relied on his profound knowledge of statistical
thermodynamics. As the famous chemist and bacteriologist Louis Pasteur
out it,
“In the field of observation, change favors only the prepared minds.”.
Planck’s search was successful – to
a
pint. As we have seen, he was able to show that the function was not
merely a
mathematical description of the experimental data but could be derived
from
fundamental principles of statistical thermodynamics – except that the
derivation required a single assumption that he could not justify. The
search
for justification is the subject of much of the rest of this chapter.
But
though Planck did not himself succeed in finding the justification, he
made the
crucial contribution of isolating what he could not understand
on basis
of acceptable physical principles, thus making it possible for others
to focus
their efforts.
Conceitos e atitudes
fundamentais em Física
http://w3.ualg.pt/%7Ejlongras/Conceitos-e-atitudes-fundamentais-em-Fisica.pdf
Os seres humanos anseiam
por certezas
absolutas e aspiram a elas. Contudo, a história da Física
ensina-nos que o
máximo que podemos esperar são melhoramentos sucessivos
da nossa compreensão
dos fenómenos naturais e, consequentemente, do universo, sempre
com a limitação
de sabermos que a absoluta certeza nos escapará.
A Física tem vindo
a mudar o nosso
conhecimento sobre o modo como a Natureza se funciona. Os
Físicos procuram
descrever os fenómenos naturais com a ajuda de modelos simples.
A observação e
a experimentação são as chaves mestras do nosso
conhecimento sobre o mundo
físico. Várias ferramentas são essenciais nesta
tarefa: uma mente curiosa e a
criatividade, a Matemática, e métodos e aparelhos de
medida. Os métodos e os
aparelhos de medida, combinados com a lógica e a razão (a
formulação de
ideias/teorias em Física envolve certas quantidades de
pensamento “puro” e de
imaginação), permitem que a descrição e a
interpretação dos fenómenos possam
ser feitas de forma objetiva. Por mais popular e criativa que seja uma
teoria
ela só corresponderá a uma descrição
válida de um dado fenómeno quando esta
tiver uma descrição físico-matemática.
Porém, o teste de qualquer teoria é
sempre a Natureza e/ou a experimentação.
A Física, e a
ciência em geral, é mais do que
um corpo de conhecimentos, é uma atitude, uma forma de pensar.
Com toda a
persistência, procuram fendas na armadura dos conhecimentos
vigentes: o
cientista deve ter um espírito crítico apurado, e
não confiar cegamente nas
afirmações das sumidades, tendo presente que os
cientistas são primatas e,
portanto, muito propensos a hierarquias de domínio. Em cada
geração há sempre
um grupo de cientistas que não se contentam em deixar as coisas
como estão. A
Física dá, por vezes, as mais elevadas recompensas
àqueles que convictamente
refutam convicções estabelecidas.
O bom cientista
não insiste na validade da sua
teoria, mas sim na sua utilidade. Nenhuma teoria, por muito bem
concebida ou
considerada que esteja, poderá suportar a existência de um
só facto importante
que seja contraditório. O que interessa não é se
“é verdadeira?”, mas sim
“funciona?”.
Experiments in Electronics
Fundamentals and
Electric Circuits Fundamentals To Accompany Floyd, Electronics
Fundamentals and
Electric Circuit Fundamentals by David Buchla (z-lib.org)
Introduction to the Student
Preparing for Laboratory Work
The purpose of experimental work is
to
help you gain a better understanding of the principles of electronics
and to
give you experience with instruments and methods used by technicians
and
electronic engineers. You should begin each experiment with a clear
idea of the
purpose of the experiment and the theory behind the experiment. Each
experiment
requires you to use electronic instruments to measure various
quantities. The
measured data are to be recorded, and you need to interpret the
measurements
and draw conclusions about your work. The ability to measure,
interpret, and
communicate results is basic to electronic work.
Preparation before coming to the
laboratory is an important part of experimental work.
You should prepare in advance for
every
experiment by reading the Reading, Objectives, and Summary of Theory
sections
before coming to class. The Summary of Theory is not intended to
replace the
theory presented in the text—it is meant only as a short review to jog
your
memory of key concepts and to provide some insight to the experiment.
You
should also look over the Procedure for the experiment. This prelab
preparation
will enable you to work efficiently in the laboratory and enhance the
value of
the laboratory time.
This laboratory manual is designed
to help
you measure and record data as efficiently as possible. Techniques for
using
instruments are described in many experiments. Data tables are prepared
and
properly labeled to facilitate recording. Plots are provided where
necessary.
You will need to interpret and discuss the results in the section
titled
Conclusion and answer the Evaluation and Review Questions. The
Conclusion to an
experiment is a concise statement of your key findings from the
experiment. Be
careful of generalizations that are not supported by the data. The
conclusion
should be a specific statement that includes important findings with a
brief
discussion of problems, or revisions, or suggestions you may have for
improving
the circuit. It should directly relate to the objectives of the
experiment. For
example, if the objective of the experiment is to use the concept of
equivalent
circuits to simplify series-parallel circuit analysis (as in Experiment
10),
the conclusion can refer to the simplified circuit drawings and
indicate that
these circuits were used to compute the actual voltages and currents in
the
experiment. Then include a statement comparing the measured and
computed
results as evidence that the equivalent circuits you developed in the
experiment
were capable of simplifying the analysis.
The Laboratory Notebook
Your instructor may assign a formal
laboratory report or a report may be assigned in the section titled For
Further
Investigation. A suggested format for formal reports is as follows:
1. Title and date.
2. Purpose: Give a statement of
what you
intend to determine as a result of the investigation.
3. Equipment and materials: Include
a list
of equipment model and serial numbers that can allow retracing if a
defective
or uncalibrated piece of equipment was used.
4. Procedure: Give a description of
what
you did and what measurements you made.
5. Data: Tabulate raw (unprocessed)
data;
data may be presented in graph form.
6. Sample calculations: Give the
formulas
that you applied to the raw data to transform them to processed data.
7. Conclusion: The conclusion is a
specific statement supported by the experimental data. It should relate
to the
objectives for the experiment as described earlier. For example, if the
purpose
of the experiment is to determine the frequency response of a filter,
the
conclusion should describe the frequency response or contain a
reference to an
illustration of the response.
Graphing
A graph is a pictorial
representation of
data that enables you to see the effect of one variable on another.
Graphs are
widely used in experimental work to present information because they
enable the
reader to discern variations in magnitude, slope, and direction between
two
quantities. In this manual, you will graph data in many experiments.
You should
be aware of the following terms that are used with graphs:
abscissa: the horizontal or x-axis
of a
graph. Normally the independent variable is plotted along the abscissa.
dependent variable: a quantity that
is
influenced by changes in another quantity (the independent variable).
graph: a pictorial representation
of a set
of data constructed on a set of coordinates that are drawn at right
angles to
each other. The graph illustrates one variable's effect on another.
independent variable: the quantity
that
the experimenter can change.
ordinate: the vertical or y-axis of
a
graph. Normally the dependent variable is plotted along the abscissa.
scale: the value of each division
along
the x- or y-axis. In a linear scale, each division has equal weight. In
a
logarithmic scale, each division represents the same percentage change
in the
variable.
The following steps will guide you
in
preparing a graph:
Determine the type of scale that
will be
used. A linear scale is the most frequently used and will be discussed
here.
Choose a scale factor that enables all of the data to be plotted on the
graph
without being cramped. The most common scales are 1, 2, 5, or 10 units
per
division. Start both axes from zero unless the data covers less than
half of
the length of the coordinate.
Number the major divisions along
each
axis. Do not number each small division as it will make the graph
appear
cluttered. Each division must have equal weight. Note: The experimental
data is
not used to number the divisions.
Label each axis to indicate the
quantity
being measured and the measurement units. Usually, the measurement
units are
given in parentheses.
Plot the data points with a small
dot with
a small circle around each point. If additional sets of data are
plotted, use
other distinctive symbols (such as triangles) to identify each set.
Draw a smooth line that represents
the
data trend. It is normal practice to consider data points but to ignore
minor
variations due to experimental errors. (Exception: calibration curves
and other
discontinuous data are connected "dot-to-dot.
Title the graph, indicating with
the title
what the graph represents. The completed graph should be
self-explanatory.
Safety in the Laboratory
The experiments in this lab book
are
designed for low voltages to minimize electric shock hazard; however,
never
assume that electric circuits are safe. A current of a few milliamps
through
the body can be lethal. In addition, electronic laboratories often
contain
other hazards such as chemicals and power tools. For your safety, you
should
review laboratory safety rules before beginning a course in
electronics. In
particular, you should
Avoid contact with any voltage
source.
Turn off power before working on circuits.
Remove watches, jewelry, rings, and
so
forth before working on circuits—even those circuits with low
voltages—as burns
can occur.
Know the location of the emergency
power-off switch.
Never work alone in the laboratory.
Keep a neat work area and handle
tools
properly. Wear safety goggles or gloves when required.
Ensure that line cords are in good
condition and grounding pins are not missing or bent. Do not defeat the
three-wire ground system in order to make "floating" measurements.
Check that transformers and
instruments
that are plugged into utility lines are properly fused and have no
exposed
wiring. If you are not certain about procedure, check with your
instructor
first.
Report any unsafe condition to your
instructor.
Be aware of and follow laboratory
rules.
Experiments in Digital
Fundamentals, 10th
Edition by David M. Buchla (z-lib.org)
Introduction to the Student
Circuit Wiring
An important skill needed by
electronics
technicians is that of transforming circuit drawings into working
prototypes.
The circuits in this manual can be constructed on solderless
protoboards
(“breadboards”) available at Radio Shack and other suppliers of
electronic
equipment. These boards use #22- or #24-gauge solid core wire, which
should
have 3/8 inch of the insulation stripped from the ends. Protoboard
wiring is
not difficult, but it is easy to make a wiring error that is
time-consuming to
correct. Wires should be kept neat and close to the board. Avoid wiring
across
the top of integrated circuits (ICs) or using wires much longer than
necessary.
A circuit that looks like a plate of spaghetti is difficult to follow
and worse
to troubleshoot.
One useful technique to help avoid
errors,
especially with larger circuits, is to make a wire list. After
assigning pin
numbers to the ICs, tabulate each wire in the circuit, showing where it
is to
be connected and leaving a place to check off when it has been
installed.
Another method is to cross out each wire on the schematic as it is
added to the
circuit. Remember the power supply and ground connections, because they
frequently are left off logic drawings. Finally, it is useful to
“daisy-chain,”
in the same color, signal wires that are connected to the same
electrical
point. Daisy-chaining is illustrated in Figure 1-1.
Troubleshooting
When the wiring is completed, test
the
circuit. If it does not work, turn off the power and recheck the
wiring.
Wiring, rather than a faulty component, is the more likely cause of an
error.
Check that the proper power and ground are connected to each IC. If the
problem
is electrical noise, decoupling capacitors between the power supply and
ground
may help. Good troubleshooting requires the technician to understand
clearly
the purpose of the circuit and its normal operation. It can begin at
the input
and proceed toward the output; or it can begin at the output and
proceed toward
the input; or it can be done by half-splitting the circuit. Whatever
procedure
you choose, there is no substitute for understanding how the circuit is
supposed to behave and applying your knowledge to the observed
conditions in a
systematic way.
The Laboratory Notebook
Purpose of a Laboratory Notebook
The laboratory notebook forms a
chronologic record of laboratory work in such a manner that it can be
reconstructed if necessary. The notebook is a bound and numbered daily
record
of laboratory work. Data are recorded as they are observed. Each page
is dated
as it is done and the signature of the person doing the work is added
to make
the work official; laboratory notebooks may be the basis of patent
applications
or have other legal purposes. No pages are left blank and no pages may
be
removed.
General Information
The format of laboratory notebooks
may
vary; however, certain requirements are basic to all laboratory
notebooks. The
name of the experimenter, date, and purpose of the experiment are
entered at
the top of each page. All test equipment should be identified by
function,
manufacturer, and serial number to facilitate reconstruction of the
experiment.
Test equipment may be identified on a block diagram or circuit drawing
rather
than an equipment list. References to any books, articles, or other
sources
that were used in preparing for the experiment are noted. A brief
description
of the procedure is necessary. The procedure is not a restatement of
the
instructions in the experiment book but rather is a concise statement
about
what was done in the experiment.
Recording of Data
Data taken in an experiment should
be
directly recorded in tabular form in the notebook. Raw (not processed)
data
should be recorded. They should not be transcribed from scratch paper.
When
calculations have been applied to data, a sample calculation should be
included
to indicate clearly what process has been applied to the raw data. If
an error
is made, a single line should be drawn through the error with a short
explanation.
Graphs
A graph is a visual tool that can
quickly
convey to the reader the relationship between variables. The eye can
discern
trends in magnitude or slope more easily from graphs than from tabular
data.
Graphs are constructed with the dependent variable plotted along the
horizontal
axis (called the abscissa) and the independent variable plotted along
the
vertical axis (called the ordinate). A smooth curve can be drawn
showing the trend
of the data. It is not necessary to connect the data points (except in
calibration curves). For data in which one of the variables is related
to the
other by a power, logarithmic (log) scales in one or both axes may show
the
relationship of data. Log scales can show data over a large range of
values
that will not fit on ordinary graph paper. When you have determined the
type of
scale that best shows the data, select numbers for the scale that are
easily
read. Do not use the data for the scale; rather, choose numbers that
allow the
largest data point to fit on the graph. Scales should generally start
from zero
unless limitations in the data preclude it. Data points on the graph
should be
shown with a dot in the center of a symbol such as a circle or
triangle. The
graph should be labeled in a self-explanatory manner. A figure number
should be
used as a reference in the written explanation.
Schematics and Block Diagrams
Schematics, block diagrams,
waveform
drawings, and other illustrations are important tools to depict the
facts of an
experiment. Experiments with circuits need at least a schematic drawing
showing
the setup and may benefit from other illustrations depending on your
purpose.
Usually, simple drawings are best; however, sufficient detail must be
shown to
enable the reader to reconstruct the circuit if necessary. Adequate
information
should be contained with an illustration to make its purpose clear to
the
reader.
Results and Conclusion
The section that discusses the
results and
conclusion is the most important part of your laboratory notebook; it
contains
the key findings of your experiment. Each experiment should contain a
conclusion, which is a specific statement about the important results
you
obtained. Be careful about sweeping generalizations that are not
warranted by
the experiment. Before writing a conclusion, it is useful to review the
purpose
of the experiment. A good conclusion “answers” the purpose of the
experiment.
For example, if the purpose of the experiment was to determine the
frequency
response of a filter, the conclusion should describe the frequency
response or
contain a reference to an illustration of the response. In addition,
the
conclusion should contain an explanation of difficulties, unusual
results,
revisions, or any suggestions you may have for improving the circuit.
Suggested Format
From the foregoing discussion, the
following format is suggested. This format may be modified as
circumstances
dictate.
1. Title and date.
2. Purpose: Give a statement of
what you
intend to determine as a result of the investigation.
3. Equipment and materials: Include
equipment model and serial numbers, which can allow retracing if a
defective or
uncalibrated piece of equipment was used.
4. Procedure: Include a description
of
what you did and what measurements you made. A reference to the
schematic
drawing should be included.
5. Data: Tabulate raw (unprocessed)
data;
data may be presented in graph form.
6. Sample calculations: If you have
a
number of calculations, give a sample calculation that shows the
formulas you
applied to the raw data to transform it to processed data. This section
may be
omitted if calculations are clear from the procedure or are discussed
in the
results.
7. Results and conclusion: This
section is
the place to discuss your results, including experimental errors. This
section
should contain key information about the results and your
interpretation of the
significance of these results.
Each page of the laboratory
notebook
should be signed and dated, as previously discussed.
The Technical Report
Effective Writing
The purpose of technical reports is
to
communicate technical information in a way that is easy for the reader
to
understand. Effective writing requires that you know your reader’s
background.
You must be able to put yourself in the reader’s place and anticipate
what
information you must convey to have the reader understand what you are
trying
to say. When you are writing experimental results for a person working
in your
field, such as an engineer, your writing style may contain words or
ideas that
are unfamiliar to a layperson. If your report is intended for persons
outside
your field, you will need to provide background information.
Words and Sentences
You will need to either choose
words that
have clear meaning to a general audience or define every term that does
not
have a well-established meaning. Keep sentences short and to the point.
Short
sentences are easiest for the reader to comprehend. Avoid stringing
together a
series of adjectives or modifiers. For example, the figure caption
below
contains a jibberish string of modifiers:
Operational amplifier constant
current
source schematic
By changing the order and adding
natural
connectors such as of, using, and an, the meaning can be clarified:
Schematic of a constant current
source
using an operational amplifier
Paragraphs
Paragraphs must contain a unit of
thought.
Excessively long paragraphs suffer from the same weakness that afflicts
overly
long sentences. The reader is asked to digest too much material at
once,
causing comprehension to diminish. Paragraphs should organize your
thoughts in
a logical format. Look for natural breaks in your ideas. Each paragraph
should
have one central idea and contribute to the development of the entire
report.
Good organization is the key to a
well-written report. Outlining in advance will help organize your
ideas. The
use of headings and subheadings for paragraphs or sections can help
steer the
reader through the report. Subheadings also prepare the reader for what
is ahead
and make the report easier to understand.
Figures and Tables
Figures and tables are effective
ways to
present information. Figures should be kept simple and to the point.
Often a
graph can make clear the relationship between data. Comparisons of
different
data drawn on the same graph make the results more obvious to the
reader.
Figures should be labeled with a figure number and a brief title. Don’t
forget
to label both axes of graphs.
Data tables are useful for
presenting
data. Usually, data that are presented in a graph or figure should not
also be
included in a data table. Data tables should be labeled with a table
number and
short title. The data table should contain enough information to make
its
meaning clear: The reader should not have to refer to the text. If the
purpose
of the table is to compare information, then form the data in columns
rather
than rows. Column information is easier for people to compare. Table
footnotes
are a useful method of clarifying some point about the data. Footnotes
should
appear at the bottom of the table with a key to where the footnote
applies.
Data should appear throughout your report in consistent units of
measurement.
Most sciences use the metric system; however, the English system is
still
sometimes used. The metric system uses derived units, which are cgs
(centimeter-gramsecond) or mks (meter-kilogram-second). It is best to
use
consistent metric units throughout your report or to include a
conversion
chart.
Reporting numbers using powers of
10 can
be a sticky point with reference to tables. Table 1-1 shows four
methods of
abbreviating numbers in tabular form. The first column is unambiguous
as the
number is presented in conventional form. This requires more space than
if we
present the information in scientific notation. In column 2, the same
data are
shown with a metric prefix used for the unit. In column 3, the power of
10 is
shown. Each of the first three columns shows the measurement unit and
is not
subject to misinterpretation. Column 4, on the other hand, is wrong. In
this
case the author is trying to tell us what operation was performed on
the
numbers to obtain the values in the column. This is incorrect because
the
column heading should contain the unit of measurement for the numbers
in the
column.
Suggested Format
1. Title: A good title must convey
the
substance of your report by using key words that provide the reader
with enough
information to decide whether the report should be investigated further.
2. Contents: Key headings
throughout the
report are listed with page numbers.
3. Abstract: The abstract is a
brief
summary of the work, with principal facts and results stated in
concentrated
form. It is a key factor for a reader to determine if he or she should
read
further.
4. Introduction: The introduction
orients
your reader to your report. It should briefly state what you did and
give the
reader a sense of the purpose of the report. It may tell the reader
what to
expect and briefly describe the report’s organization.
5. Body of the report: The report
can be
made clearer to the reader if you use headings and subheadings in your
report.
The headings and subheadings can be generated from the outline of your
report.
Figures and tables should be labeled and referenced from the body of
the
report.
6. Conclusion: The conclusion
summarizes
important points or results. It may refer to figures or tables
previously
discussed in the body of the report to add emphasis to significant
points. In
some cases, the primary reasons for the report are contained within the
body
and a conclusion is deemed to be unnecessary.
7. References: References are cited
to
enable the reader to find information used in developing your report or
work
that supports your report. The reference should include all authors’
names in
the order shown in the original document. Use quotation marks around
portions
of a complete document such as a journal article or a chapter of a
book. Books,
journals, or other complete documents should be underlined. Finally,
list the
publisher, city, date, and page numbers.
Experiments in Electronics
Fundamentals
and Electric Circuits Fundamentals To Accompany Floyd, Electronics
Fundamentals
and Electric Circuit Fundamentals by David Buchla (z-lib.org)
Introduction to the Student David
Buchla
Preparing for Laboratory Work
The purpose of experimental work is
to
help you gain a better understanding of the principles
of electronics and to give you
experience
with instruments and methods used by technicians
and electronic engineers. You
should begin
each experiment with a clear idea of the purpose
of the experiment and the theory
behind
the experiment. Each experiment requires you to use
electronic instruments to measure
various
quantities. The measured data are to be recorded,
and you need to interpret the
measurements
and draw conclusions about your work. The
ability to measure, interpret, and
communicate results is basic to electronic work.
Preparation before coming to the
laboratory is an important part of experimental work.
You should prepare in advance for
every
experiment by reading the Reading, Objectives, and
Summary of Theory sections before
coming
to class. The Summary of Theory is not intended
to replace the theory presented in
the
text—it is meant only as a short review to jog your
memory of key concepts and to
provide some
insight to the experiment. You should also look
over the Procedure for the
experiment.
This prelab preparation will enable you to work
efficiently in the laboratory and
enhance
the value of the laboratory time.
This laboratory manual is designed
to help
you measure and record data as efficiently
as possible. Techniques for using
instruments are described in many experiments. Data tables
are prepared and properly labeled
to
facilitate recording. Plots are provided where necessary.
You will need to interpret and
discuss the
results in the section titled Conclusion and answer
the Evaluation and Review
Questions. The
Conclusion to an experiment is a concise
statement of your key findings from
the
experiment. Be careful of generalizations that are not
supported by the data. The
conclusion
should be a specific statement that includes important
findings with a brief discussion of
problems, or revisions, or suggestions you may have for
improving the circuit. It should
directly
relate to the objectives of the experiment. For
example, if the objective of the
experiment is to use the concept of equivalent circuits to
simplify series-parallel circuit
analysis
(as in Experiment 10), the conclusion can refer to the
simplified circuit drawings and
indicate
that these circuits were used to compute the actual
voltages and currents in the
experiment.
Then include a statement comparing the measured
and computed results as evidence
that the
equivalent circuits you developed in the
experiment were capable of
simplifying the
analysis.
The Laboratory Notebook
Your instructor may assign a formal
laboratory report or a report may be assigned in the
section titled For Further
Investigation.
A suggested format for formal reports is as follows:
Title and date.
Purpose: Give a statement of what
you
intend to determine as a result of the
investigation.
Equipment and materials: Include a
list of
equipment model and serial numbers that
can allow retracing if a defective
or
uncalibrated piece of equipment was used.
Procedure: Give a description of
what you
did and what measurements you made.
Data: Tabulate raw (unprocessed)
data;
data may be presented in graph form.
Sample calculations: Give the
formulas
that you applied to the raw data to transform
them to processed data.
7. Conclusion: The conclusion is a
specific statement supported by the experimental
data. It should relate to the
objectives
for the experiment as described earlier. For
example, if the purpose of the
experiment
is to determine the frequency response of a
filter, the conclusion should
describe the
frequency response or contain a reference to
an illustration of the response.
Graphing
A graph is a pictorial
representation of
data that enables you to see the effect of one variable
on another. Graphs are widely used
in
experimental work to present information because they
enable the reader to discern
variations in
magnitude, slope, and direction between two
quantities. In this manual, you
will graph
data in many experiments. You should be aware of
the following terms that are used
with
graphs:
abscissa: the horizontal or x-axis
of a
graph. Normally the independent variable is plotted
along the abscissa.
dependent variable: a quantity that
is
influenced by changes in another quantity (the
independent variable).
graph: a pictorial representation
of a set
of data constructed on a set of coordinates that are
drawn at right angles to each
other. The
graph illustrates one variable's effect on another.
independent variable: the quantity
that
the experimenter can change.
ordinate: the vertical or y-axis of
a
graph. Normally the dependent variable is plotted along
the abscissa.
scale: the value of each division
along
the x- or y-axis. In a linear scale, each division has
equal weight. In a logarithmic
scale, each
division represents the same percentage change in
the variable.
The following steps will guide you
in
preparing a graph:
Determine the type of scale that
will be
used. A linear scale is the most frequently
used and will be discussed here.
Choose a
scale factor that enables all of the data to
be plotted on the graph without
being
cramped. The most common scales are 1, 2, 5,
or 10 units per division. Start
both axes
from zero unless the data covers less than half
of the length of the coordinate.
Number the major divisions along
each
axis. Do not number each small division as it
will make the graph appear
cluttered. Each
division must have equal weight. Note:
The experimental data is not used
to
number the divisions.
Label each axis to indicate the
quantity
being measured and the measurement units.
Usually, the measurement units are
given
in parentheses.
Plot the data points with a small
dot with
a small circle around each point. If
additional sets of data are
plotted, use
other distinctive symbols (such as triangles) to
identify each set.
Draw a smooth line that represents
the
data trend. It is normal practice to consider
data points but to ignore minor
variations
due to experimental errors. (Exception:
calibration curves and other
discontinuous
data are connected "dot-to-dot.
Title the graph, indicating with
the title
what the graph represents. The completed
graph should be self-explanatory.
Safety in the Laboratory
The experiments in this lab book
are
designed for low voltages to minimize electric shock
hazard; however, never assume that
electric circuits are safe. A current of a few milliamps
through the body can be lethal. In
addition, electronic laboratories often contain other
hazards such as chemicals and power
tools.
For your safety, you should review laboratory
safety rules before beginning a
course in
electronics. In particular, you should
Avoid contact with any voltage
source.
Turn off power before working on circuits.
Remove watches, jewelry, rings, and
so
forth before working on circuits—even those
circuits with low voltages—as burns
can
occur.
Know the location of the emergency
power-off switch.
Never work alone in the laboratory.
Keep a neat work area and handle
tools
properly. Wear safety goggles or gloves when
required.
Ensure that line cords are in good
condition and grounding pins are not missing or
bent. Do not defeat the three-wire
ground
system in order to make "floating" measurements.
Check that transformers and
instruments
that are plugged into utility lines are properly
fused and have no exposed wiring.
If you
are not certain about procedure, check with
your instructor first.
Report any unsafe condition to your
instructor.
Be aware of and follow laboratory
rules.
Experiments in Digital
Fundamentals, 10th
Edition by David M. Buchla (z-lib.org)
Introduction to the Student
Circuit Wiring
An important skill needed by electronics technicians is that of
transforming
circuit drawings into working prototypes. The circuits in this manual
can be
constructed on solderless protoboards (“breadboards”) available at
Radio Shack
and other suppliers of electronic equipment. These boards use #22- or
#24-gauge
solid core wire, which should have 3/8 inch of the insulation stripped
from the
ends. Protoboard wiring is not difficult, but it is easy to make a
wiring error
that is time-consuming to correct. Wires should be kept neat and close
to the
board. Avoid wiring across the top of integrated circuits (ICs) or
using wires
much longer than necessary. A circuit that looks like a plate of
spaghetti is
difficult to follow and worse to troubleshoot.
One useful technique to help avoid errors, especially with larger
circuits, is
to make a wire list. After assigning pin numbers to the ICs, tabulate
each wire
in the circuit, showing where it is to be connected and leaving a place
to
check off when it has been installed. Another method is to cross out
each wire
on the schematic as it is added to the circuit. Remember the power
supply and
ground connections, because they frequently are left off logic
drawings.
Finally, it is useful to “daisy-chain,” in the same color, signal wires
that
are connected to the same electrical point. Daisy-chaining is
illustrated in
Figure 1-1.
Troubleshooting
When the wiring is completed, test the circuit. If it does not work,
turn off
the power and recheck the wiring. Wiring, rather than a faulty
component, is
the more likely cause of an error. Check that the proper power and
ground are
connected to each IC. If the problem is electrical noise, decoupling
capacitors
between the power supply and ground may help. Good troubleshooting
requires the
technician to understand clearly the purpose of the circuit and its
normal
operation. It can begin at the input and proceed toward the output; or
it can
begin at the output and proceed toward the input; or it can be done by
half-splitting the circuit. Whatever procedure you choose, there is no
substitute for understanding how the circuit is supposed to behave and
applying
your knowledge to the observed conditions in a systematic way.
The Laboratory Notebook
Purpose of a Laboratory Notebook
The laboratory notebook forms a chronologic record of laboratory work
in such a
manner that it can be reconstructed if necessary. The notebook is a
bound and
numbered daily record of laboratory work. Data are recorded as they are
observed. Each page is dated as it is done and the signature of the
person
doing the work is added to make the work official; laboratory notebooks
may be
the basis of patent applications or have other legal purposes. No pages
are
left blank and no pages may be removed.
General Information
The format of laboratory notebooks may vary; however, certain
requirements are
basic to all laboratory notebooks. The name of the experimenter, date,
and
purpose of the experiment are entered at the top of each page. All test
equipment should be identified by function, manufacturer, and serial
number to
facilitate reconstruction of the experiment. Test equipment may be
identified
on a block diagram or circuit drawing rather than an equipment list.
References
to any books, articles, or other sources that were used in preparing
for the
experiment are noted. A brief description of the procedure is
necessary. The
procedure is not a restatement of the instructions in the experiment
book but
rather is a concise statement about what was done in the experiment.
Recording of Data
Data taken in an experiment should be directly recorded in tabular form
in the
notebook. Raw (not processed) data should be recorded. They should not
be
transcribed from scratch paper. When calculations have been applied to
data, a
sample calculation should be included to indicate clearly what process
has been
applied to the raw data. If an error is made, a single line should be
drawn through
the error with a short explanation.
Graphs
A graph is a visual tool that can quickly convey to the reader the
relationship
between variables. The eye can discern trends in magnitude or slope
more easily
from graphs than from tabular data. Graphs are constructed with the
dependent
variable plotted along the horizontal axis (called the abscissa) and
the
independent variable plotted along the vertical axis (called the
ordinate). A
smooth curve can be drawn showing the trend of the data. It is not
necessary to
connect the data points (except in calibration curves). For data in
which one
of the variables is related to the other by a power, logarithmic (log)
scales
in one or both axes may show the relationship of data. Log scales can
show data
over a large range of values that will not fit on ordinary graph paper.
When
you have determined the type of scale that best shows the data, select
numbers
for the scale that are easily read. Do not use the data for the scale;
rather,
choose numbers that allow the largest data point to fit on the graph.
Scales
should generally start from zero unless limitations in the data
preclude it.
Data points on the graph should be shown with a dot in the center of a
symbol
such as a circle or triangle. The graph should be labeled in a
self-explanatory
manner. A figure number should be used as a reference in the written
explanation.
Schematics and Block Diagrams
Schematics, block diagrams, waveform drawings, and other illustrations
are
important tools to depict the facts of an experiment. Experiments with
circuits
need at least a schematic drawing showing the setup and may benefit
from other
illustrations depending on your purpose. Usually, simple drawings are
best;
however, sufficient detail must be shown to enable the reader to
reconstruct
the circuit if necessary. Adequate information should be contained with
an
illustration to make its purpose clear to the reader.
Results and Conclusion
The section that discusses the results and conclusion is the most
important
part of your laboratory notebook; it contains the key findings of your
experiment. Each experiment should contain a conclusion, which is a
specific
statement about the important results you obtained. Be careful about
sweeping generalizations
that are not warranted by the experiment. Before writing a conclusion,
it is
useful to review the purpose of the experiment. A good conclusion
“answers” the
purpose of the experiment. For example, if the purpose of the
experiment was to
determine the frequency response of a filter, the conclusion should
describe
the frequency response or contain a reference to an illustration of the
response. In addition, the conclusion should contain an explanation of
difficulties, unusual results, revisions, or any suggestions you may
have for improving
the circuit.
Suggested Format
From the foregoing discussion, the following format is suggested. This
format
may be modified as circumstances dictate.
1. Title and date.
2. Purpose: Give a statement of what you intend to determine as a
result of the
investigation.
3. Equipment and materials: Include equipment model and serial numbers,
which
can allow retracing if a defective or uncalibrated piece of equipment
was used.
4. Procedure: Include a description of what you did and what
measurements you made.
A reference
to the schematic drawing should be included.
5. Data: Tabulate raw (unprocessed) data; data may be presented in
graph form.
6. Sample calculations: If you have a number of calculations, give a
sample
calculation that shows the formulas you applied to the raw data to
transform it
to processed data. This section may be omitted if calculations are
clear from
the procedure or are discussed in the results.
7. Results and conclusion: This section is the place to discuss your
results,
including experimental errors. This section should contain key
information
about the results and your interpretation of the significance of these
results.
Each page of the laboratory notebook should be signed and dated, as
previously
discussed.
The Technical Report
Effective Writing
The purpose of technical reports is to communicate technical
information in a
way that is easy for the reader to understand. Effective writing
requires that
you know your reader’s background. You must be able to put yourself in
the
reader’s place and anticipate what information you must convey to have
the
reader understand what you are trying to say. When you are writing
experimental
results for a person working in your field, such as an engineer, your
writing
style may contain words or ideas that are unfamiliar to a layperson. If
your
report is intended for persons outside your field, you will need to
provide
background information.
Words and Sentences
You will need to either choose words that have clear meaning to a
general
audience or define every term that does not have a well-established
meaning.
Keep sentences short and to the point. Short sentences are easiest for
the
reader to comprehend. Avoid stringing together a series of adjectives
or
modifiers. For example, the figure caption below contains a jibberish
string of
modifiers:
Operational amplifier constant current source schematic
By changing the order and adding natural connectors such as of, using,
and an,
the meaning can be clarified:
Schematic of a constant current source using an operational amplifier
Paragraphs
Paragraphs must contain a unit of thought. Excessively long paragraphs
suffer
from the same weakness that afflicts overly long sentences. The reader
is asked
to digest too much material at once, causing comprehension to diminish.
Paragraphs should organize your thoughts in a logical format. Look for
natural
breaks in your ideas. Each paragraph should have one central idea and
contribute to the development of the entire report.
Good organization is the key to a well-written report. Outlining in
advance
will help organize your ideas. The use of headings and subheadings for
paragraphs or sections can help steer the reader through the report.
Subheadings also prepare the reader for what is ahead and make the
report easier
to understand.
Figures and Tables
Figures and tables are effective ways to present information.
Figures should be kept simple and to the point. Often a graph can make
clear
the relationship between data. Comparisons of different data drawn on
the same
graph make the results more obvious to the reader. Figures should be
labeled
with a figure number and a brief title. Don’t forget to label both axes
of
graphs.
Data tables are useful for presenting data.
Usually, data that are presented in a graph or figure should not also
be
included in a data table. Data tables should be labeled with a table
number and
short title. The data table should contain enough information to make
its
meaning clear: The reader should not have to refer to the text. If the
purpose
of the table is to compare information, then form the data in columns
rather
than rows. Column information is easier for people to compare. Table
footnotes
are a useful method of clarifying some point about the data. Footnotes
should
appear at the bottom of the table with a key to where the footnote
applies.
Data should appear throughout your report in consistent units of
measurement.
Most sciences use the metric system; however, the English system is
still
sometimes used. The metric system uses derived units, which are cgs
(centimeter-gramsecond) or mks (meter-kilogram-second). It is best to
use
consistent metric units throughout your report or to include a
conversion
chart.
Reporting numbers using powers of 10 can be a sticky point with
reference to
tables. Table 1-1 shows four methods of abbreviating numbers in tabular
form.
The first column is unambiguous as the number is presented in
conventional
form. This requires more space than if we present the information in
scientific
notation. In column 2, the same data are shown with a metric prefix
used for
the unit. In column 3, the power of 10 is shown. Each of the first
three
columns shows the measurement unit and is not subject to
misinterpretation.
Column 4, on the other hand, is wrong. In this case the author is
trying to
tell us what operation was performed on the numbers to obtain the
values in the
column. This is incorrect because the column heading should contain the
unit of
measurement for the numbers in the column.
Suggested Format
1. Title: A good title must convey the substance of your report by
using key
words that provide the reader with enough information to decide whether
the
report should be investigated further.
2. Contents: Key headings
throughout the
report are listed with page numbers.
3. Abstract: The abstract is a
brief
summary of the work, with principal facts and results stated in
concentrated
form. It is a key factor for a reader to determine if he or she should
read
further.
4. Introduction: The introduction
orients
your reader to your report. It should briefly state what you did and
give the
reader a sense of the purpose of the report. It may tell the reader
what to
expect and briefly describe the report’s organization.
5. Body of the report: The report can be made clearer to the reader if
you use
headings and subheadings in your report. The headings and subheadings
can be
generated from the outline of your report. Figures and tables should be
labeled
and referenced from the body of the report.
6. Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes important points or results.
It may
refer to figures or tables previously discussed in the body of the
report to
add emphasis to significant points. In some cases, the primary reasons
for the
report are contained within the body and a conclusion is deemed to be
unnecessary.
7. References: References are cited to enable the reader to find
information
used in developing your report or work that supports your report. The
reference
should include all authors’ names in the order shown in the original
document.
Use quotation marks around portions of a complete document such as a
journal
article or a chapter of a book. Books, journals, or other complete
documents
should be underlined. Finally, list the publisher, city, date, and page
numbers.